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Who Owns Zimbabwe's Lost Heritage Objects?

Zimbabwe's unusual collections also tell stories about removed artefacts, ownership disputes and the power to define history.

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On this page

  • Objects taken during colonial rule
  • Returns, collections and disputed ownership
  • Museums, memory and cultural authority
Preview for Who Owns Zimbabwe's Lost Heritage Objects?

Introduction

Zimbabwe’s lost heritage objects are at the centre of a wider debate about who has the right to hold, interpret and display the material remains of the past. The most famous example is the soapstone Zimbabwe Bird from Great Zimbabwe, a sacred and nationally important carving that became separated from its original setting during the colonial period. Alongside these objects are disputes over ancestral human remains and other collections removed during the era of British rule and European scientific collecting.[Smithsonian Institution]si.eduOpen source on si.edu.

Artefact Debates illustration 1

The return of such objects is not only about moving items from one museum to another. For Zimbabwe, restitution is connected with memory, identity and the ability of communities to tell their own histories. Museums holding Zimbabwean objects overseas often describe their role in terms of preservation and research, while campaigners argue that objects taken under unequal colonial conditions cannot be separated from the political circumstances in which they left the country.[British Museum]britishmuseum.orgBritish Museum Collecting histories | British MuseumBritish Museum Collecting histories | British Museum

Objects taken during colonial rule

The Zimbabwe Birds and the removal of Great Zimbabwe heritage

The most recognisable case in Zimbabwe’s heritage debates is the removal of the soapstone birds from Great Zimbabwe. These carvings were created at the ancient stone city and are associated with royal authority, spirituality and the symbolic power of the settlement. Their importance grew further after independence, when the Zimbabwe Bird became a national emblem appearing on the flag and coat of arms.[Smithsonian Institution]si.eduOpen source on si.edu.

During the late nineteenth century, as European settlers and colonial authorities increasingly controlled the region, several of the birds were removed from Great Zimbabwe. One well-known case concerns the carving known as Chapungu, which was taken in 1889 by Willi Posselt and later acquired by Cecil Rhodes. The object became part of Rhodes’s private collection rather than remaining within the landscape where it had cultural meaning.[dsac.gov.za]dsac.gov.zaAddress by Minister Gayton McKenzie on the occasion of the handover ceremony of the Zimbabwe Soapstone Bird and Ancestral Human Remains a…

The removal of the birds was unusual because these were not simply decorative artefacts. Their original setting was part of their meaning. Separating a bird from the stone platform and sacred landscape of Great Zimbabwe changed how it could be understood. Scholars have argued that the later history of the carvings reveals the relationship between archaeology, colonial power and national identity.[arkeologi.bokorder.se]arkeologi.bokorder.seOpen source on bokorder.se.

Today, Great Zimbabwe itself is protected as a major heritage site managed by the National Museums and Monuments of Zimbabwe (NMMZ), which oversees national monuments and collections connected with the country’s archaeological history.[NMMZ]nmmz.co.zwNational Museums & Monuments of ZimbabweDecember 10, 2019…Published: December 10, 2019

Handoverof the Zimbabwean bird (soapstone) and Ancestral Human Remains

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Human remains and the ethics of colonial collecting

The restitution debate also extends beyond objects to human remains. During colonial rule, African bodies were sometimes collected for physical anthropology and racial research, practices now widely criticised as part of a wider history of colonial exploitation. Zimbabwe has repeatedly raised concerns about the location and return of remains believed to have been taken during conflicts such as the First Chimurenga resistance against British colonial rule in the 1890s.[The Guardian]theguardian.comThe GuardianRobert Mugabe tells Natural History Museum to return human skulls | Zimbabwe | The GuardianAugust 13, 2015…Published: August 13, 2015

The issue remains sensitive because human remains are not treated as ordinary museum objects by many communities. For descendants, returning ancestors may be connected with mourning, spiritual obligations and restoring dignity. Museums, meanwhile, must investigate provenance — the documented history of how remains entered collections — before making decisions about possible returns. Recent calls from Zimbabwean descendants for British institutions to assist in locating remains show that these questions remain unresolved.[The Guardian]theguardian.comEight descendants, including Chief Cogen Simbayi Gwasira, have formally requested collaboration and offered DNA to help identify the rema…

Returns, collections and disputed ownership

When does a museum object become a restitution issue?

The central disagreement in colonial artefact debates is usually not whether history should be preserved, but how ownership should be understood. Museums may have acquired objects through purchases, donations, excavations or official colonial channels, but critics argue that these processes often operated within unequal systems where local people had limited power to refuse removal or influence where objects ended up.[British Museum]britishmuseum.orgBritish Museum Collecting histories | British MuseumBritish Museum Collecting histories | British Museum

For Zimbabwean heritage advocates, the key question is not only “where is the object safest?” but also “who has the authority to interpret it?” A soapstone bird displayed far from Great Zimbabwe can be studied internationally, but its absence from the landscape and communities that gave it meaning creates a different kind of loss.

International museums increasingly respond through provenance research, long-term loans, shared exhibitions and restitution agreements. However, these approaches are debated. A loan can increase public access while leaving legal ownership unchanged, whereas permanent return recognises the claim that some objects should be restored to their places of origin.[The Guardian]theguardian.comThis initiative aims to facilitate the eventual return of these objects to their countries of origin. The fund will prioritize objects fr…

Artefact Debates illustration 2

The return of the Zimbabwe Bird

The Zimbabwe Bird has become a symbol of how heritage disputes can change over time. Several carvings were returned to Zimbabwe before independence or in later agreements, while others remained abroad for decades. In recent years, South African institutions have been involved in discussions and handovers involving Zimbabwean heritage objects and ancestral remains.[Iziko Museums]iziko.org.zaIziko Museums Repatriation of The Zimbabwe Bird – Iziko MuseumsIziko Museums Repatriation of The Zimbabwe Bird – Iziko Museums

The importance of these returns goes beyond the physical object. The Zimbabwe Bird represents a link between ancient Great Zimbabwe, modern national identity and the struggle to correct colonial-era separations. The debate shows why some heritage objects become more than museum pieces: they become symbols of historical authority.

Artefact Debates illustration 3

Museums, memory and cultural authority

Who gets to tell the story of Zimbabwe’s past?

Colonial-era collections shaped museum displays around the world. Objects from Zimbabwe can now be found in institutions outside the country, including major international collections. The British Museum, for example, lists more than a thousand objects connected with Zimbabwe in its online catalogue, reflecting the long history of collecting from the region.[British Museum]britishmuseum.orgBritish Museum Collections Online | British MuseumBritish Museum Collections Online | British Museum

The modern debate is therefore not simply about emptying foreign museums. It is about changing relationships between institutions and source communities. Many heritage specialists argue that museums should move away from presenting colonial collections as neutral collections of curiosities and instead explain the circumstances in which objects were acquired.

For Zimbabwe, this has particular importance because some colonial narratives attempted to minimise African authorship of major achievements such as Great Zimbabwe. Returning objects and revising museum interpretation are connected parts of a larger effort to recognise African historical agency.[Smithsonian Institution]si.eduOpen source on si.edu.

Decolonising Museum Practices Collections, Interpretation and the Invisible - 29 June 2026

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Why these debates matter for visitors

Visitors interested in Zimbabwe’s unusual collections encounter a different kind of mystery than legends about unexplained objects. The unanswered questions are historical and ethical: how did an object travel, who removed it, who has cared for it, and who should decide its future?

The story of Zimbabwe’s lost heritage objects shows that museums are not only places where old things are stored. They are places where societies negotiate memory, ownership and identity. The return of artefacts such as the Zimbabwe Bird demonstrates that a single carved stone object can carry centuries of religious meaning, colonial history and modern national significance.[Smithsonian Institution]si.eduOpen source on si.edu.

Museums around the world are returning artefacts to countries of origin | Inside Story

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Endnotes

1. Source: dsac.gov.za
Link:https://www.dsac.gov.za/Address%20by%C2%A0%20Minister%20Gayton%20McKenzie%20-%20handover%20ceremony%20of%20Zimbabwe%20Soapstone%20Bird%20and%20Ancestral%20Human%20Remains

Source snippet

Address by Minister Gayton McKenzie on the occasion of the handover ceremony of the Zimbabwe Soapstone Bird and Ancestral Human Remains a...

2. Source: arkeologi.bokorder.se
Link:https://arkeologi.bokorder.se/en-US/article/3626/the-soapstone-birds-of-great-zimbabwe

3. Source: nmmz.co.zw
Link:https://www.nmmz.co.zw/

Source snippet

National Museums & Monuments of ZimbabweDecember 10, 2019...

Published: December 10, 2019

4. Source: nmmz.co.zw
Title: NMMZAbout Us
Link:https://www.nmmz.co.zw/about-us/

Source snippet

National Museums & Monuments of Zimbabwe...

5. Source: dsac.gov.za
Link:https://www.dsac.gov.za/Minister%20McKenzie%20to%20hand%20over%20the%20Zimbabwe%20Soapstone%20Bird%20and%20Ancestral%20Human%20Remains

6. Source: dailynews.gov.bw
Title: Daily News
Link:https://dailynews.gov.bw/news-detail/91660

7. Source: nma.gov.au
Title: Collections – return of cultural objects policy | National Museum of Australia
Link:https://www.nma.gov.au/about/corporate/policies/collections-return-of-cultural-objects

8. Source: GOV.UK
Title: www.gov.uk Repatriation of Zimbabwean remains in UK Museum
Link:https://www.gov.uk/government/news/repatriation-of-zimbabwean-remains-in-uk-museum

9. Source: si.edu
Link:https://www.si.edu/es/object/soapstone-birds-great-zimbabwe-archaeological-heritage-religion-and-politics-postcolonial-zimbabwe%3Asiris_sil_1161381

10. Source: theguardian.com
Link:https://www.theguardian.com/world/2026/mar/07/descendants-of-zimbabwe-resistance-heroes-urge-uk-to-locate-looted-skulls

Source snippet

Eight descendants, including Chief Cogen Simbayi Gwasira, have formally requested collaboration and offered DNA to help identify the rema...

11. Source: britishmuseum.org
Title: British Museum Collecting histories | British Museum
Link:https://www.britishmuseum.org/about-us/british-museum-story/collecting-histories

12. Source: theguardian.com
Link:https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/aug/13/mugabe-demands-return-of-skulls-from-londons-natural-history-museum

Source snippet

The GuardianRobert Mugabe tells Natural History Museum to return human skulls | Zimbabwe | The GuardianAugust 13, 2015...

Published: August 13, 2015

13. Source: theguardian.com
Link:https://www.theguardian.com/world/2024/jan/19/france-germany-research-provenance-african-objects-national-museums

Source snippet

This initiative aims to facilitate the eventual return of these objects to their countries of origin. The fund will prioritize objects fr...

14. Source: iziko.org.za
Title: Iziko Museums Repatriation of The Zimbabwe Bird – Iziko Museums
Link:https://www.iziko.org.za/news/repatriation-of-the-zimbabwe-bird/

15. Source: britishmuseum.org
Title: British Museum Collections Online | British Museum
Link:https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/term/x40939

16. Source: nmmz.co.zw
Title: Heritage And Tourism
Link:https://www.nmmz.co.zw/heritage-and-tourism/

17. Source: nmmz.co.zw
Title: National Monuments Management Programme
Link:https://www.nmmz.co.zw/national-monuments-management-programme/

18. Source: nmmz.co.zw
Title: regional museums
Link:https://www.nmmz.co.zw/regional-museums/

19. Source: zimlive.com
Title: British museums to return Zimbabwe skulls stolen during colonial era
Link:https://www.zimlive.com/british-museums-to-return-zimbabwe-skulls-stolen-during-colonial-era/

20. Source: nmmz.co.zw
Link:https://www.nmmz.co.zw/visit/

21. Source: nmmz.co.zw
Link:https://www.nmmz.co.zw/collections/

22. Source: badarchaeology.com
Title: Great Zimbabwe
Link:https://www.badarchaeology.com/in-the-service-of-politics/great-zimbabwe/

23. Source: britishmuseum.org
Link:https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/E_CRS-73

24. Source: britishmuseum.org
Link:https://www.britishmuseum.org/visit/object-trails/collecting-and-empire-trail

25. Source: britishmuseum.org
Link:https://www.britishmuseum.org/about-us/british-museum-story/contested-objects-collection/asante-gold-regalia

26. Source: britishmuseum.org
Title: 1933 45 provenance
Link:https://www.britishmuseum.org/about-us/british-museum-story/contested-objects-collection/1933-45-provenance

27. Source: missionsmuseum.de
Link:https://www.missionsmuseum.de/en/about-us/museum-interventions/returns

28. Source: kulturgutverluste.de
Link:https://kulturgutverluste.de/en/contexts/colonial-contexts/returns

Additional References

29. Source: youtube.com
Title: Decolonising Museum Practices Collections, Interpretation and the Invisible
Link:https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9CFJDiZE550

Source snippet

This selection focuses on official ceremonies and diplomatic debates surrounding the repatriation of African cultural artifacts and ances...

30. Source: youtube.com
Link:https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=S7ZkbUo0Hyw

Source snippet

Decolonising Museum Practices Collections, Interpretation and the Invisible...

31. Source: youtube.com
Title: Handover of the Zimbabwean bird (soapstone) and Ancestral Human Remains
Link:https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9SdjTZGeEvE

Source snippet

Zimbabwe advances UK talks to repatriate liberation heroes' remains...

32. Source: youtube.com
Title: Should stolen African art be returned? | Inside Story
Link:https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AFl3D6YQJQk

Source snippet

Museums around the world are returning artefacts to countries of origin | Inside Story...

33. Source: youtube.com
Title: Zimbabwe advances UK talks to repatriate liberation heroes’ remains
Link:https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ME8tyKsPfqY

Source snippet

Should stolen African art be returned? | Inside Story...

34. Source: auswaertiges-amt.de
Link:https://www.auswaertiges-amt.de/en/newsroom/news/coordination-council-2762636

35. Source: euronews.com
Link:https://www.euronews.com/culture/2026/04/02/germany-to-create-restitution-council-to-return-colonia-era-acquired-cultural-artefacts

36. Source: teachanyclass.org
Link:https://teachanyclass.org/object/[zimbabwe-birds

37. Source: researchgate.net
Link:https://www.researchgate.net/publication/390365568_Reclaiming_Lost_Memory_Reflections_on_the_Restitution_of_Cultural_Material_Within_the_Local_Context_with_Specific_Reference_to_Zimbabwe

38. Source: vam.ac.uk
Link:https://www.vam.ac.uk/info/restitution-and-repatriation